Wiki+Words

=A-B= Ability groups - groups formed by dividing students for instruction on the basis of their perceived capacities for learning.

Accommodation - In Piagetian theory, a component of adaptation; process of modification in thinking (schemes) that takes place when old ways of understanding something no longer fit.

Acculturation - cultural modification of an individual, group, or people by adapting to or borrowing traits from another culture; also : a merging of cultures as a result of prolonged contact

Additive approach - In this approach content, concepts, themes, and perspectives are added to the curriculum without changing its basic structure. This involves incorporating literature by and about people from diverse cultures into the mainstream curriculum without changing the curriculum.

Affective Domain - This describes the way people react emotionally and their ability to feel another living thing's pain or joy. Affective objectives typically target the awareness and growth in attitudes, emotion, and feelings"

Assimilation - in Piagetian theory, a component of adaptation; process of interpreting an experience in terms of current ways (schemes) of understanding things.

Attribution Theory - motivational theory looking at how the average person constructs the meaning of an event based on his /her motives to find a cause and his/her knowledge of the environment. It basically looks at how people make sense of their world; what cause and effect inferences they make about the behaviors of others and of themselves.

Auditory modality - the ability to hear; the auditory faculty

Basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS) - language skills needed to interact in social situations, for example, when speaking to a friend on the telephone. BICS refers primarily to context-bound, face-to-face communication, like the language first learned by toddlers and preschoolers, which is used in everyday social interaction.

Behavioral approach - based on the concept of explaining behavior through observation, and the belief that our environment is what causes us to behave differently

Behaviorism - the school of thought that stresses the need for psychology to be an objective science. In other words, that psychology should be a science based on observable (and only observable) events, not the unconscious or conscious mind. (John Watson, 1913)

Biases - prejudice in favor of or against one thing, person, or group compared with another, usually in a way considered to be unfair. a particular tendency or inclination, especially one that prevents unprejudiced consideration of a question; prejudice.

Bidialectism - proficiency in or using two dialects of the same language.

Bilingual - able to speak two languages with the facility of a native speaker.

Biracial - of, for, or consisting of members of two races; having parents of two different races.

Bullying - unwanted, aggressive behavior among school aged children that involves a real or perceived power imbalance. The behavior is repeated, or has the potential to be repeated, over time.

=C-D= Chunking-organizing or grouping separate pieces of information together so that students can remember the information easier

Classical Conditioning- A type of associative learning. These associations are formed by pairing two stimuli--what Ivan Pavlov described as the learning of conditioned behavior-- to condition an animal to give a certain response. The simplest form of classical conditioning is reminiscent of what Aristotle would have called the law of contiguity which states that: "When two things commonly occur together, the appearance of one will bring the other to mind."

Cognitive Learning Theory-explains why the brain is the most incredible network of information processing and interpretation in the body as we learn things. This theory can be divided into two specific theories: the Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), and the Cognitive Behavioral Theory (CBT)

Concept-an idea of something formed by mentally combining all its characteristics or particulars; a construct

Conditional Knowledge-knowledge about when to use a procedure, skill, or strategy and when not to use it; why a procedure works and under what conditions; and why one procedure is better than another

Constructivism-A set of assumptions about the nature of human learning that guide constructivist learning theories and teaching methods. Constructivism values developmentally appropriate, teacher-supported learning that is initiated and directed by the student

Contiguity-a series of things in continuous connection

Convergent thinking and problem solving- type of thinking that focuses on coming up with the single, well-established answer to a problem; to use standards or probabilities to make judgments in problem solving

Community resources-Any agency, company, facility, or service in the community that provides assistance in supported independence to those at risk

Community stress-interactions between neighborhood context factors, community stressors, and modes of organization

Declarative knowledge- expressed in declarative sentences or indicative propositions as opposed to procedural or "know how"

Defining attributes-a quality or characteristic of a person, think, group, etc.

Divergent thinking and problem solving- thought process or method used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions

Classroom discussion model-There are several examples of discussion models that can be used in the classroom to help engage students in material presented. Some examples include socratic seminar, paideia seminar, and touchstone discussions

Cognitive Approach- focuses on mental processes, perception, and language as a way of explaining and understanding human behavior Convergent Questions-questions with a specific answer and will lead you to an expected result

Deductive Strategy-strategy that moves from specific details to general details

Deficiency Needs-the most fundamental needs described by Maslow. These needs include self-esteem, friendship, love, security, and physical needs.

Discovery Learning- a method of inquiry-based instruction and is considered a constructivist based approach to education

Discussion- action or process of talking about something, typically in order to reach a decision or to exchange ideas

Disequilibrium- a lack of balance or state of disequilibrium; "a hormonal imbalance" Divergent Questions- question with no specific answer, but rather exercises one's ability to think broadly about a certain topic

Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP)-refers to formal academic learning. This includes listening, speaking, reading, and writing about subject area content material

Contributions Approach-an approach to integrate ethnic content in the curriculum. Specifically, it is the addition of ethnic heroes into the curriculum that are selected using criteria similar to those used to select mainstream heroes for inclusion in the classroom.

Culture-The arts and other manifestations of human intellectual achievement regarded collectively

Cultural Deprivation- the absence of certain expected and acceptable cultural phenomena in the environment which results in the failure of the individual to communicate and respond in the most appropriate manner within the context of society

Culturally Relevant Teaching (CRT)- teachers display cultural competence: skill at teaching in a cross-cultural or multicultural setting. [|[2]] They enable each student to relate course content to his or her cultural context

Dialect-particular form of a language that is peculiar to a specific region or social group

Differently abled-the lacking of expected abilities

Digital Divide- any inequalities between groups, broadly construed, in terms of access to, use of, or knowledge of information and communication technologies

Discrimination-The unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people or things, esp. on the grounds of race, age, or sex

Dual Language Program- form of education in which students are taught literacy and content in two languages

Classroom climate- type of environment that is created for students by the school, teachers, and peers

Community of learners- a group of people who share common emotions, values, or beliefs, are actively engaged in learning together from each other and by habit

Conventional ethics-according to Kohlberg, the conventional level or moral reasoning happens most in adolescents and adults. Those who reason in a conventional way judge the morality of actions by comparing them to society's views and expectations

Cooperative learning models- teaching strategy in which small teams, each with students of different levels of ability, use a variety of learning activities to improve their understanding of a subject

=E-F= Emotional intelligence- refers to the ability to perceive, control and evaluate emotions

Empowerment-refers to increasing the spiritual, political, social, educational, gender or economic strength of individuals and communities; to promote the self-actualization or influence of

Encoding-is the first step in the process of creating a new memory

English as a second language (ESL)-refers to the use or study of English by speakers with different native languages

English language learner (ELL)-is a person who is learning the English language in addition to their native language

Equilibrium-the condition of a system in which all competing influences are balanced, in a wide variety of contexts including mental and emotional systems.

Ethnicity-a group of people whose members identify with each other through a common heritage, consisting of a common culture, including a shared language or dialect. The group's ethos or ideology may also stress common ancestry, religion, or race.

Ethnocentric-belief in the superiority of one’s own ethnic group; overriding concern with race

Exceptionalities-A child who has an exceptionality has some area of functioning in which he or she is significantly different from an established norm. This definition includes both students with disabilities and those with special gifts or talents.

Explicitly communicate-refers to the things we say or write, often messages intended to influence the behavior of others; fully and clearly expressed or demonstrated

External locus of control-refers to a person's basic belief system about the influences that affect successful outcomes in their lives over which they have no control. External influences controlling life outcomes include belief in fate, society, God, or luck.

Extinguishing-to put an end to or bring to an end

Extrinsic motivation-refers to motivation that comes from outside an individual. The motivating factors are external, or outside, rewards such as money or grades. These rewards provide satisfaction and pleasure that the task itself may not provide.

Facilitating teaching style-method of teaching in which the instructor guides, instigates, and motivates students to learn. Appropriate instructional strategies are utilized to create a positive learning environment in the classroom and promotes interaction between curriculum, instruction, and the student.

Field dependent-tending to rely on information provided by the outer world, the field or frame of a situation and cognition (toward other things) and is based on the overall field. It is defined by a relative inability to distinguish detail from other information around it

Field independent-tending to depend on one’s inner knowledge to analyze problems by oneself, without reference to the frame.It is defined by a tendency to separate details from the surrounding context.

Funds of knowledge-the historically accumulated and culturally developed bodies of knowledge and skills essential for household or individual functioning and well-being; competence gained from life experience.

=G-H=

=I-K=

=L-M= Learning The acquisition of knowledge or skills through experience, practice, or study, or by being taught

Learning styles an individual's mode of gaining knowledge, especially a preferred or best method

Long term memory A system for permanently storing, managing, and retrieving information for later use

Metacognition thinking about one's own mental processes

Modalities the style learners use to concentrate on, process, and retain information

Modeling a teacher's demonstration of a skill to students

Mulitple Intelligences a model of intelligence that differentiates intelligence into various specific categories
 * Spatial
 * Linguistic
 * Logical-mathematical
 * Bodily-kinesthetic
 * Musical
 * Interpersonal
 * Intrapersonal
 * Naturalistic
 * Existential

Learned helplessness condition of a human or animal that has learned to behave helplessly, failing to respond even though there are opportunities for it help to itself by avoiding unpleasant circumstances or by gaining positive rewards

Learner-Centered A means of teaching approach focuses on the strengths learners bring to a learning event. Learners are engaged in expanding their strengths and interests, and usually they will do best under this circumstance. Learners are trusted to work and to make reasonable decisions. Learners learn responsibility through this kind of teaching because they are given responsibility for their own learning. This teaching approach almost include structuring the classroom in that learners are in charge.

Learning (mastery) Goals

A statement of what students will know and be able to do

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs often represented as a pyramid with five levels of needs, it is a motivational theory in psychology that argues that while people aim to meet basic needs, they seek to meet successively higher needs in the form of a hierarchy.

Metacognitive Skills evaluation and thinking about one's own as well as others’ knowledge and understanding (thinking about thinking)

Models of Teaching Standards of teaching behaviors identified as desirable for given teaching situations

Monitoring activities pursued by teachers to keep track of student learning for purposes of making instructional decisions and providing feedback to students on their progress.

Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) means that a student who has a disability should have the opportunity to be educated with non-disabled peers, to the greatest extent appropriate

Limited English Proficiency an individual –
 * who is aged three through 21;
 * who is enrolled or preparing to enroll in an elementary school or secondary school;
 * who was not born in the United States or whose native language is a language other than English; who is a Native American or Alaska Native, or a native resident of the outlying areas; and who comes from an environment where a language other than English has had a significant impact on the individual’s level of English language proficiency; orwho is migratory, whose native language is a language other than English, and who comes from an environment where a language other than English is dominant; and
 * whose difficulty is speaking, reading, writing, or understanding the English language may be sufficient to deny the individual the ability to meet the State’s proficient level of achievement on State assessments described in Section 1111(b)(3) and the ability to successfully achieve in classrooms where the language of instruction is English; or the opportunity to participate fully in society.”

Macro Culture a group of cultures with similar beliefs, social patterns, and material traits

Melting Pot a place where a variety of races, cultures, or individuals assimilate into a cohesive whole

Micro Culture The distinctive culture of a small group of people within a limited geographical area or within an organization such as a school or business.

Minority Group a sociological category within a demographic. Rather than a relational "social group", as the term would indicate, the term refers to a category that is differentiated and defined by the social majority, that is, those who hold the majority of positions of social power in a society. The differentiation can be based on one or more observable human characteristics, including, for example, ethnicity, race, gender, wealth or sexual orientation. Usage of the term is applied to various situations and civilizations within history, despite its popular mis-association with a numerical, statistical minority. In the social sciences, the term "minority" is used to refer to categories of persons who hold few positions of social power.

Monocultural A single, homogeneous culture without diversity or dissension

Multiracial made up of, involving, or acting on behalf of various races: a multiracial society or
 * h**aving ancestors of several or various races

=N-O=

=P-R= Parenting styles- the child rearing behavior of parents involving the amount of control over a child's activities and behavior and the degree the child is nurtured.

Positive reinforcement- a behavioral technique in which desired behaviors are increased through the use of rewards.

Procedural knowledge- knowledge exercised in the performance of some task.

Punishment- imposition of something negative or unpleasant in response to wrong behavior.

Rehearsal- something recounted or told again; a practice exercise

Reinforcement- to strengthen by additional assistance material or support.

Removal punishment- a form of punishment in which a pleasant stimulus is taken away in response to inappropriate behavior.

Routine problem solving- consistant practice in analyzing existing or likely problems.

=S= concept suggests that the integration of the many different cultures of United States residents combine like a salad, as opposed to the more traditional notion of a cultural melting pot. In the salad bowl model, various American cultures are juxtaposed — like salad ingredients — but do not merge into a single homogeneous culture. Each culture keeps its own distinct qualities. feeling "full" and satisfied after eating; the cessation of hunger. Semantic satiation, where repetition of a word or phrase causes it to temporarily lose meaning. in philosophy the referencing of a category to a sense impression through time, a mental set or representation selectively concentrating on one aspect of the environment while ignoring other things. a multi-dimensional construct that refers to an individual's perception of "self" in relation to any number of characteristics, such as academics (and nonacademics), gender roles and sexuality,[|[] racial identity, and many others. Each of these characteristics is a research domain (i.e. Academic Self-Concept) within the larger spectrum of self-concept although no characteristics exist in isolation as one’s self-concept is a collection of beliefs about oneself. is best explained as self-confidence. It is specifically connected with one's abilities, unlike self-esteem. the "evaluative" component—it is where one makes judgments about his or her self-worth. a prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true, by the very terms of the prophecy itself, due to positive feedback between belief and behavior. The self-fulfilling prophecy is, in the beginning, a //false// definition of the situation evoking a new behaviour which makes the original false conception come 'true'. (SM) allows individuals to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimulus has ceased. A common demonstration of SM is a child's ability to write letters and make circles by twirling a sparkler at night. When the sparkler is spun fast enough, it appears to leave a trail which forms a continuous image. This "light trail" is the image that is represented in the visual sensory store known as iconic memory. The other two types of SM that have been most extensively studied are echoic memory, and haptic memory; however, it is reasonable to assume that each physiological sense has a corresponding memory store. the reinforcement of successive approximations to train a type of behavior a teaching style founded on the concept of providing meaningful instruction in the content areas (social studies, math, science) for transitioning Limited English Proficient (LEP) students towards higher academic achievement while they reach English fluency. This method type is often used in mainstream secondary classrooms where the students have a foundation of English education. is the capacity for holding a small amount of information in mind in an active, readily available state for a short period of time. The duration of short-term memory (when rehearsal or active maintenance is prevented) is believed to be in the order of seconds. A commonly cited capacity is 7 ± 2 elements. The theory of social action, more than structural functionalist positions, accepts and assumes that humans vary their actions according to social contexts and how it will affect other people; when a potential reaction is not desirable, the action is modified accordingly. Action can mean either a basic action (one that has a meaning) or an advanced social action, which not only has a meaning but is directed at other actors and causes action (or, perhaps, //inaction//). posits that portions of an individual's knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context of social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences. In other words, people do not learn new behaviors solely by trying them and either succeeding or failing, but rather, the survival of humanity is dependent upon the replication of the actions of others. Depending on whether people are rewarded or punished for their behavior and the outcome of the behavior, that behavior may be modeled. a relationship between two, three, or more individuals a perspective that states that people learn within a social context. It is facilitated through concepts such as modeling and observational learning. According to Social Learning theory, models are an important source for learning new behaviors and for achieving behavioral change in institutionalized settings. Social learning theory is derived from the work of Albert Bandura which proposed that observational learning can occur in relation to three models: • Live model – in which an actual person is demonstrating the desired behaviour • Verbal instruction – in which an individual describes the desired behaviour in detail, and instructs the participant in how to engage in the behavior • Symbolic – in which modeling occurs by means of the media, including movies, television, Internet, literature, and radio. This type of modeling involves a real or fictional character demonstrating the behaviour. an economic and sociological combined total measure of a person's work experience and of an individual's or family’s economic and social position in relation to others, based on income, education, and occupation. When analyzing a family’s SES, the household income, earners' education, and occupation are examined, as well as combined income, versus with an individual, when their own attributes are assessed. Socioeconomic status is typically broken into three categories, high SES, middle SES, and low SES to describe the three areas a family or an individual may fall into. When placing a family or individual into one of these categories any or all of the three variables (income, education, and occupation) can be assessed. refers to the organization and continuity of one's self-concept. a belief that can be held by anybody about specific types of individuals or certain ways of doing things, but that belief may or may not accurately reflect reality. the action of various agents (stimuli) on nerves, muscles, or a sensory end organ, by which activity is evoked; especially, the nervous impulse produced by various agents on nerves, or a sensory end organ, by which the part connected with the nerve is thrown into a state of activity. The word is also often used metaphorically. For example, an interesting or fun activity can be described as "stimulating", regardless of its physical effects on nerves. a form of learning in which one stimulus, the //conditioned stimulus// or CS, comes to signal the occurrence of a second stimulus, the //unconditioned stimulus// or US. The US is usually a biologically significant stimulus such as food or pain that elicits a response from the start; this is called the //unconditioned response// or UR. Factors causing an organism’s condition to waver away from homeostasis can be interpreted as stress. A life-threating situation such as a physical insult or prolonged starvation can greatly disrupt homeostasis. On the other hand, an organism’s effortful attempt at restoring conditions back to or near homeostasis, oftentimes consuming energy and natural resources, can also be interpreted as stress. an approach to education focusing on the needs of the students, rather than those of others involved in the educational process, such as teachers and administrators. This approach has many implications for the design of curriculum, course content, and interactivity of courses.
 * __Salad Bowl-__**
 * __Satiation-__**
 * __Schema-__**
 * __Selective Attention-__**
 * __Self-concept-__**
 * __Self-efficacy-__**
 * __Self-esteem-__**
 * __Self-fulfilling Prophecy-__**
 * __Sensory Memeory-__**
 * __Shaping-__**
 * __Sheltered English Program-__**
 * __Short-term Memory-__**
 * __Social Action Approach-__**
 * __Social Cognitive Theory-__**
 * __Social Interaction-__**
 * __Social Learning Theory-__**
 * __Socioeconomic Status (SES)-__**
 * __Stability-__**
 * __Stereotyping-__**
 * __Stimulation-__**
 * __Stimulus-response Learning-__**
 * __Stress Factors-__**
 * __Student-Centered Teaching-__**

=T-Z= __**Tactile Modality**__ - the sensory modality pertaining to the sense of contact via the skin with external objects.

__**Teaching Styles**__ - refers to the teaching strategies and methods employed plus use of certain kinds of rhetorics. Some theorists divide teaching styles into two categories: teacher-centered and learner-centered

__**Transfer-**__ "the redirection of feelings and desires and especially of those unconsciously retained from childhood toward a new object." Transference was first described by [|Sigmund Freud], who acknowledged its importance for [|psychoanalysis] for better understanding of the patient's feelings.

__**Vicarious Learning -**__ learning that happens as a result of observing the behavior of others

__**Visual Modality -**__ Learning modalities are the sensory channels or pathways through which individuals give, receive, and store information. Perception, memory, and sensation comprise the concept of modality. The modalities or senses include visual, auditory, tactile/kinesthetic, smell, and taste. Visual learners are those who learn by seeing. They need to see overheads, diagrams, and read text books, etc. to understand a concept.

__**Working Memory -**__ the system which actively holds information in the mind to do verbal and nonverbal tasks such as reasoning and comprehension, and to make it available for further information processing

__**Teacher-as-Audience**__ on most academic papers, the teacher is the explicit audience.

__**Teacher-as-Coach**__ The teacher's role shifts from one of **control** of what and how students learn to one of **mediation** of student learning. This coaching role requires teachers to be as engaged in learning as their students and to develop a sense of flow in our teaching beliefs, actions, and decisions.

__**Teacher-as-Facilitator**__ The teacher engages in negotiation, stimulates and monitors discussion and project work but does not control

Helps students to construct their own meaning by modeling, mediating, explaining when needed, redirecting focus, providing options
 * __Teacher-as-Guide__**

__**Teacher-Centered vs. Learner-Centered Instruction:**__
 * ====Focus is on instructor ==== || ====Focus is on both students and instructor ==== ||
 * ====Focus is on language forms and structures (what the instructor knows about the language) ==== || ====Focus is on language use in typical situations (how students will use the language) ==== ||
 * ====<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Instructor talks; students listen ==== || ====<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Instructor models; students interact with instructor and one another ==== ||
 * ====<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Students work alone ==== || ====<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Students work in pairs, in groups, or alone depending on the purpose of the activity ==== ||
 * ====<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Instructor monitors and corrects every student utterance ==== || ====<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Students talk without constant instructor monitoring; instructor provides feedback/correction when questions arise ==== ||
 * ====<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Instructor answers students’ questions about language ==== || ====<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Students answer each other’s questions, using instructor as an information resource ==== ||
 * ====<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Instructor chooses topics ==== || ====<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Students have some choice of topics ==== ||
 * ====<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Instructor evaluates student learning ==== || ====<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Students evaluate their own learning; instructor also evaluates ==== ||
 * ====<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Classroom is quiet ==== || ====<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Classroom is often noisy and busy ==== ||

__**Transformative Approach**__ Teachers set up a disorienting dilemma in order to bring about fundamental change in the learner. This can be a psychological (changes in understanding of the self), convictional (revision of belief systems), and behavioral (changes in lifestyle).

__**Transitional Program**__ causing gradual change through a series of steps

__**Zone of Proximal Development -**__ the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can do with help. It is a concept developed by Soviet psychologist and [|social constructivist] [|Lev Vygotsky]